Assessing Writing Jul 2026 Open Access

Examining linguistic reasoning and metalinguistic strategies in L2 writing: Insights from teacher- and AI-feedback revisions

Huican Huo University of Auckland ; Lawrence Jun Zhang University of Auckland

Abstract

Second language (L2) writers’ capacity to reason about language choices during revision is theoretically central to advanced writing development, yet few studies trace how this linguistic reasoning emerges in repeated feedback-revision cycles that integrate teacher and AI suggestions. This multi-case, longitudinal mixed-methods study examined how ten L2 learners enacted metalinguistic strategies and developed linguistic reasoning across a 12-week online Academic English program. Triangulated data sources included 1246 feedback revision episodes, pre-post reasoning-task responses, and semi-structured exit interviews. We operationalized linguistic reasoning as the processual construct of interest and treated metalinguistic strategies as observable indicators; reasoning responses were scored with a three-dimensional analytic rubric while revisions and interaction logs were coded thematically and by strategy. Results show a systematic shift from early, correctness-focused edits toward later revisions characterized by coordinated structural comparison, more explicit self-explanation, and integrative argumentation; composite reasoning scores increased, with the largest gains observed on depth of explanation. Process analyses identified recurrent patterns in which alternative-rich feedback coincided with comparison moves, partially divergent suggestions often coincided with more explicit self-explanation, and integrative argumentation involving discourse-level revision became more visible over time. Pedagogical implications are also discussed.

Journal
Assessing Writing
Published
2026-07-01
DOI
10.1016/j.asw.2026.101084
CompPile
Open Access
OA PDF Hybrid
Topics
Export
BibTeX RIS

Citation context

Cited by in this index (0)

No articles in this index cite this work.

References (48) · 4 in this index

  1. Banga (2023)
    Separating the relevant from the irrelevant: Factors influencing L1 student teachers’ abi…
    L1: Educational Studies in Language and Literature
  2. Bitchener (2012)
    Written corrective feedback in second language acquisition and writing
  3. Carless (2018)
    The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback
    Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education  ↗
  4. Cheng (2024)
    Examining second language (L2) learners’ engagement with AWE-teacher integrated feedback …
    Asia-Pacific Education Researcher  ↗
  5. Denham (2020)
    Positioning students as linguistic and social experts: Teaching grammar and linguistics i…
    L1: Educational Studies in Language and Literature
Show all 48 →
  1. (2010)
    Linguistics at school: Language awareness in primary and secondary education
  2. Dielemans (2020)
    Defining linguistic reasoning: Transposing and grounding a model for historical reasoning…
    Dutch Journal of Applied Linguistics  ↗
  3. Ellis (2010)
    Epilogue: A framework for investigating oral and written corrective feedback
    Studies in Second Language Acquisition  ↗
  4. Fleckenstein (2023)
    Automated feedback and writing: A multi-level meta-analysis of effects on students’ performance
    Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence  ↗
  5. Flower et al. (1981)
    A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing
    College Composition and Communication
  6. Han (2015)
    Exploring learner engagement with written corrective feedback in a Chinese tertiary EFL c…
    Journal of Second Language Writing  ↗
  7. Huang (2022)
    Facilitating L2 writers’ metacognitive strategy use in argumentative writing using a proc…
    Frontiers in Psychology  ↗
  8. Hudson (2004)
    Why education needs linguistics (and vice versa)
    Journal of Linguistics  ↗
  9. Hudson (2020)
    Towards a pedagogical linguistics
    Pedagogical Linguistics  ↗
  10. Hyland (2019)
    Second language writing
  11. Hyland (2006)
    Contexts and issues in feedback on L2 writing: An introduction
    Feedback in second language writing: Contexts and issues
  12. Kang (2015)
    The efficacy of written corrective feedback in improving L2 written accuracy: A meta-analysis
    The Modern Language Journal  ↗
  13. Kim et al. (2025)
    The impact of self-revision, machine translation, and ChatGPT on L2 writing: Ra…
    Assessing Writing
  14. Leijten et al. (2013)
    Keystroke Logging in Writing Research: Using Inputlog to Analyze and Visualize …
    Written Communication
  15. Li (2019)
    The associations between working memory and the effects of four different types of writte…
    Journal of Second Language Writing  ↗
  16. (2011)
    Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language
  17. (2016)
    Handbook of second and foreign language writing
  18. Meyer (2024)
    Using LLMs to bring evidence-based feedback into the classroom: AI-generated feedback inc…
    Computers & Education: Artificial Intelligence
  19. Muñoz Muñoz (2025)
    ChatGPT-generated versus human direct corrective feedback on L2 writing
    System  ↗
  20. Myhill (2012)
    Re-thinking grammar: The impact of embedded grammar teaching on students’ writing and stu…
    Research Papers in Education  ↗
  21. Nicol (2021)
    The power of internal feedback: Exploiting natural comparison processes
    Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education  ↗
  22. Panadero (2019)
    Using formative assessment to influence self- and co-regulated learning: The role of eval…
    European Journal of Psychology of Education  ↗
  23. Polio (2017)
    Second-language writing development: A research agenda
    Language Teaching  ↗
  24. R Core Team. (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 4.4.1) [Computer softwa…
  25. Ranalli (2021)
    L2 student engagement with automated feedback on writing: Potential for learning and issu…
    Journal of Second Language Writing  ↗
  26. Roehr-Brackin (2018)
    Metalinguistic awareness and second language acquisition
  27. Stewart (2010)
    Discovering “language myths and truths”: A summer enrichment course in linguistics for hi…
    Language and Linguistics Compass  ↗
  28. Storch (2010)
    Learners’ processing, uptake, and retention of corrective feedback on writing: Case studies
    Studies in Second Language Acquisition  ↗
  29. Strandberg (2024)
    Grammatical and rhetorical reasoning in upper secondary students’ collaborative talk abou…
    Linguistics and Education  ↗
  30. Tai (2018)
    Developing evaluative judgement: Enabling students to make decisions about the quality of work
    Higher Education  ↗
  31. Van Rijt (2024)
    Getting a load of linguistic reasoning: How L1 student teachers process rules of thumb an…
    Applied Linguistics  ↗
  32. Van Rijt (2019)
    When students tackle grammatical problems: Exploring linguistic reasoning with linguistic…
    Linguistics and Education  ↗
  33. Van Rijt (2022)
    Linguistic metaconcepts can improve grammatical understanding in L1 education: Evidence f…
    PLOS ONE  ↗
  34. Wang (2025)
    Metacognitive instruction for improving the effectiveness of collaborative writing for EF…
    The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher  ↗
  35. Wette (2017)
    Source text use by undergraduate post-novice L2 writers in disciplinary assignments: Prog…
    Journal of Second Language Writing  ↗
  36. Wijnands (2021)
    Learning to think about language step by step: A pedagogical template for the development…
    Language Awareness  ↗
  37. Wijnands (2022)
    Balancing between uncertainty and control: Teaching reflective thinking about language in…
    Linguistics and Education  ↗
  38. Winstone (2019)
    Building feedback literacy: Students’ perceptions of the Developing Engagement with Feedb…
    Frontiers in Education  ↗
  39. Xu (2026)
    Peer feedback and its effects on Chinese English-as-a-goreign-language (EFL) learners’ te…
    Springer Nature
  40. Zhai (2023)
    The effectiveness of automated writing evaluation on writing quality: A meta-analysis
    Journal of Educational Computing Research  ↗
  41. Zhang (2021)
    Examining the effects of comprehensive written corrective feedback on L2 EAP students’ li…
    Journal of English for Academic Purposes  ↗
  42. Zhang et al. (2023)
    Student engagement with peer feedback in L2 writing: Insights from reflective j…
    Assessing Writing
  43. Zhang (2025)
    Exploring undergraduate EFL students’ growth in knowledge of elements in argumentation an…
    Applied Linguistics Review  ↗
CrossRef global citation count: 0 View in citation network → Build reading path →

Related articles

  1. Journal of Response to Writing Apr 2026
    More Than Treating Errors: Bridging the Gaps and Expanding the Agenda for Scholarship on Teacher Written Feedback for L2 Writers ↗
    Goldstein, Lynn; Kohls, Robert
    discourse analysis writing pedagogy teacher development revision multilingual writers
  2. Pedagogy Oct 2024
    Contributors ↗
    rhetorical criticism first-year composition writing pedagogy basic writing writing across the curriculum graduate education two-year college service learning teacher development revision argument collaborative writing assessment writing program administration multimodality multilingual writers literacy studies race and writing disability studies community literacy editorial matter
  3. Pedagogy Oct 2021
    When the Writing Classroom Is a Lab for Democracy ↗
    Moira A. Connelly
    rhetorical criticism first-year composition writing pedagogy graduate education teacher development revision argument collaborative writing writing centers peer tutoring digital rhetoric multimodality multilingual writers race and writing gender and writing editorial matter
  4. College Composition and Communication Dec 1997
    Getting Restless: Rethinking Revision in Writing Instruction ↗
    Nancy Welch
    rhetorical criticism discourse analysis writing pedagogy advanced composition graduate education teacher development revision writing centers qualitative research literacy studies gender and writing
  5. College Composition and Communication Oct 1965
    Grammar and Composition ↗
    discourse analysis writing pedagogy teacher development argument multilingual writers grammar and mechanics